Acknowledgements
Résumé
Introduction
I. Definitions and hypothesis
A. Introduction
B. Illicit drug traffic
a) Definitions and international views of drug trafficking as a security issue
b) Coca and Cocaine (and Crack and Bazuco):
c) Heroin
B. Illicit drug traffic as an aspect of Ntional Scurity. Dimensions of the problem
a) National Security
b) Threat
c) The nature of the state
d) What poses the threat?
C. Hypothesis
D. Points of divergence with similar works on the topic of drug trafficking and security
II. South America, a region of weak states
A. Introduction
B. The region
a) Traditional geopolitical delimitation of South America
b) Drug trafficking geopolitical delimitation: a deadly international division of labor
C. The weak nature of the south american states
a) Sociopolitical cohesion (Legitimacy and Integration)
b) Policy capacity
c) Territorial centrality
d) Socioeconomic development
D. Concluding remarks
III. The cocaine industry and National Security in South America
A. Introduction
B. Economic and social roots of the cocaine industry in South America
C. The industry and its direct and indirect participants: traffickers, peasants, and guerrillas
a) Drug trafficking organizations
b) The myths of the "narco-guerrilla" connection
c) The peasants
D. Tackling the "white peril": the United States as an extra-regional actor and the "war on drugs"
E. National Security problems
a) Military/Traditional threats
b) Political threats
c) Economic threats
d) Societal threats
e) Environmental threats
F. Some explanations
G. Concluding remarks
IV. Evolution of drug trafficking control policies in Colombia and its consequences (1978-1994)
A. Introduction
B. Drug trafficking-related violence in Colombia
:
a) Assessing the problem: types of drug trafficking-related violence in Colombia
b) Manifestation of drug trafficking related violence in Colombia
C. Deadly feedback: militarized enforcement, drug trafficking related violence and spillover (1978- 1994)
a) The beginning of militarized enforcement against drug trafficking: President Julio César Turbay Ayala's administration (1978-1982)
b) Knocking at hell's door. President Belisario Betancur Cuartas administration (1982-1986)
c) Colombia's ordeal: President Virgilio Barco administration (1986-1990)
d) Escobar's phyrric victory: César Gaviria administration (1990-1994)
V. Drug trafficking and the security of Venezuela (1978-1994)
A. Introduction
B. Drug trafficking and Venezuela as a weak state
a) A brief introduction to Venezuela
b) Sociopolitical cohesion
c) Policy capacity
d) Socioeconomic development
e) Territorial centrality
C. Drug trafficking and threats to Venezuela
a) Traditional/Military threats
b) Political threats
c) Economic threats
d) Societal threats
e) Ecological threats
D. Drug trafficking in Venezuela's national security agenda
E. Concluding remarks
VI. Evolution of militarized enforcement in Bolivia and its consequences (1982-1997)
A. Introduction
B. Drug trafficking related violence in bolivia
a) Assessing the problem: underlying conditions for the rise of the coca-cocaine industry in Bolivia and types of drug trafficking-related violence
C. Militarized enforcement, drug trafficking related violence and spillover (1982- 1997)
a) The Banzerato (1971-1978)
b) Narco-Generals (1980-1982) prolegomena to the Bolivia's cocaine quagmire
c) Bolivia's War on Drugs
d) When all the evils came together: President Hernán Siles Suazo's administration (1982-1985)
e) Escalating the war on drugs: President Víctor Paz Estenssoro's administration (1985-1989)
f) Ambiguous "war on drugs games" and preemptive de-escalation: President Jaime Paz Zamora's administration (1989-1993)
g) "More of the same": President Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada's administration (1993-1997)
h) A brief thought on Bolivia's ephemeral guerrillas
i) Transformations in the Bolivian cocaine industry
D. Concluding remarks
VII. The problematique of Argentina as a neighboring transshipment country (1983-1995)
A. Introduction
B. Drug trafficking and Argentina as a weak state
a) A brief introduction to Argentina
b) Sociopolitical cohesion
c) Policy capacity
d) Socioeconomic development
e) Territorial centrality
C. Drug trafficking and threats to Argentina
a) Traditional /Military threats
b) Political threats
c) Economic threats
d) Societal threats
D. Concluding remarks
VIII. Drug trafficking in Argentina's national security agenda (1983-1994)
A. Introduction
B. Methodological introduction
C. Argentina and the meaning of "national security" in the period under study
D. Drug trafficking, border spillover and national security concerns in Argentina 1976-1994
a) Night and Fog: Drug trafficking and national security during the military dictatorship (1976-1983)
b) The end of the beginning: President Alfonsín administration (1983-1989)
c) Development of Cognitive Maps 1983-1989
d) It takes two to tango: President Menem's first term of office 1989-1995
e) Development of cognitive maps II (1989-1995)
f) The cognitive maps of law enforcement and (civilian) intelligence officials (1983-1995)
E. Concluding remarks
IX. Tackling the industry: non-military strategies for the containment of drug trafficking in South America
A. Introduction
B. The problem of facing the problem
C. Multilateralizing failure? Projects for a multilateral counter-drug force
a) Who wants to bring in the Blue Helmets?
b) Multinational strike force? What? How? When? and...Who?
c) Getting real: How and when could a multilateral force against drug trafficking could work?
D. Concluding remarks: alternative development and the need for a cooperative security approach
X. International and regional multilateral alternative development efforts
A. Introduction
B. The inter-american drug abuse control commission of the organization of american states (CICAD)
C. The Uunited Nations drug control machinery
a) The United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP)
b) The System-Wide Action Plan and a short comment on UNDCP-CICAD cooperation
c) UNDCP's alternative development activities
D. Concluding remarks
XI. Bolivia, the light at the end of the tunnel
A. Introduction
B. The chapare: advantage and potential for the success of alternative development
a) The area
b) Giving credit where it is due: USAID alternative development achievements in the Chapare
c) UNDCP's achievements in the Chapare
d) The sprouts of development
e) Problems and obstacles that still need to be overcome
C. Concluding remarks
Conclusion
A. Accomplishments
B. Final thoughts
Bibliography
Sources
Works
Annexes
Annex 1: Maps
Annex 2: South America, basic indicators of development
Annex 3: Venezuela and Argentina, law enforcement territorial deployment
Note(s)